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作者 Philip Owen SAWaC
(南非水源危機)
「推己及『代』」
「如果你想相信每樣事物都仍好端端的待在世界上，那麼你最少必須忽略掉四分之三的事物。」
剝削自然資源、人口過多、燃燒石化燃料、污染、核能污染、砍伐林木與工業化農業（包括林木工業）已使生物多樣性嚴重衰退。
根據由聯合國委託撰寫的報告：
˙地球上百分之五十的溼地已經乾涸
˙百分之八十的草原被大幅改變
˙百分之五十八的珊瑚礁因人類活動而被破壞，正處於危險之中。
˙百分之二十的乾燥地帶正面臨沙漠化的危險。
˙幾乎所有地方的地下水都正被耗盡。
世界自然基金會最近發表了一份「活行星報告」，在報告中陳述自從1970年以來，地球已喪失了百分之三十的生物多樣性。
我們不可能不依附環境而生。就如同所有其他生物體一樣，我們受到基本生命規則的管制。我們是地球的生物。我們在環境中吃、喝與呼吸。
有完整的自然生態系以調節我們環境中包括空氣、氣候與臭氧等等許多重要層面，使生命變得可能。
人類所能生存的氣溫範圍相當狹窄。完整的自然系統經由大氣中的複雜過程，並靠生物系統中釋放出來的氣體，來調節熱度。由人們引起的空氣污染，現在卻顛覆了這微妙的平衡。
因為我們大量利用石化燃料，大量的碳現在被釋放到大氣之中。在此同時，各地現存的、原產的、能吸收許多碳，而功能有如地球肺葉般的「老」森林，現在卻被砍伐。因此，碳逐漸積存在大氣中，產生了溫室效應。緩慢地，但是必然地，使地球持續暖化。
已有報導指出，印度洋本季的表面溫度是28度，造成非州東南部異常的降雨。這些洪水影響了數百萬人的生計。
全球都了解，我們必須改變現狀，我們必須開始與自然合作，為了與所有和我們共享地球的生物共享利益，我們必須為生存與生命合作。
造林問題
在我居住的地區，大規模的造林對自然環境帶來最嚴重的衝擊。在南非，一百五十萬公頃的土地，已被刻意栽種了外來樹種的人工林。根據「科學與工技研究委員會」(CSIR－南非最大的科研組織)，南非另有一百六十五萬公頃的土地，也有「不受管理地」外來種植被，大部分都是松樹、油加利樹與荊樹。根據刊載在ASL航空公司機上雜誌「Sawubona」中的「森林的事實」，我們每年還有一萬三千公頃的自然草原受到「造林」的影響。
文獻清楚記載，外來樹種的人工林會使用大量的水源。Klaseri河(位於南非北部的Mpumalanga省)的流量，在1935到1965年間急遽下降（從一億四千三百萬立方公尺，降為一千六百五十萬立方公尺），而這個地區唯一的主要改變，就是在河的流域之中，種植了外來樹種的純林。
外來樹種經年利用水源，造成冬天低水流時，水位急速下降，而許多河川在低水位期完全枯竭。
種植人工林後，草原的水土保持功能也喪失了。
我們常常提到我們生態系統的整合性。那麼，溼地如何能和餵養它們的草原分離呢？當地，所有我們視為對自然系統功能很重要的矯正、恢復與保護土地措施，都非常重要，但我們不應該忽略掉我們生態系的整合性。
最近的大雨造成嚴重水災，但對於造林工業的責難卻微乎其微。然而，以單一物種來取代草原，草原所扮演的水土保持功能就喪失了。在大雨之後，水很快地衝進大容積的低地，嚴重水患的發生並不讓人意外。
這個問題因常常因「焚燒殘柴」的做法而更形惡化。這項做法通常發生在皆伐之後、下一次種植之前。大火烘乾土壤，讓雨水更難滲透。
在我所居住的地區，河流特性的改變相當急遽。我記得三十年前，洪水僅僅維持幾天，水位會慢慢下降。近來的洪水來得匆忙，儘管有豐沛的雨量，Houtbosloop河的水位依然很低。而唯一主要的變化，也是在河流流域上造林。
單一樹種造林對生物多樣性有重大影響。
已有證據顯示，長成的人造林下累積的大量枯枝落葉，連微生物都不能適應與居住。這些微生物負責把有機物質分解成有用的養分，以確保土壤健康。
我們在輸出「未加工」紙漿時，實際上卻是輸出土壤營養物與水。現在所進行的造林模式，無法讓土壤回復健康。
在二十五年的輪作松樹之後，有些土壤型態被耗盡。如果不立即改變現況的話，在未來一百五十年會發成什麼事呢？
本土植物無法在外來種人造林中存活，昆蟲、爬蟲類、鳥類或哺乳類也不能。栽植人工林，我們就否決了所有其他生物的生存權，而這些生物卻曾經居住在豐饒的草原上。許多動物，如藍燕、哥百靈、金鼴，已因喪失草原棲地而被瀕臨絕種的邊緣。
對於自然環境的負面衝擊也影響人類。從以前在廣大草原上營可持續生活，但現在當地卻覆蓋著單一作物的人們的身上，可以很容易地找到證據。了解土地、真正尊重自然力量的人們，他們的生命就受自然支配，並因自然而富饒。人們以前能獵捕肥美的巨羚與黑尾牛羚、收集野生蜜蜂的蜂蜜、從自然環境中找到建材、薪柴、草藥與植物。他們大部分種植本土作物，利用小面積的土地與勞力密集的方法。
工業時代帶來機械化、都市化，對於自然的評價與尊敬也逐步降低。
邁向永續
為了達到永續，各個公司應該在「三條底線」-生態系健康、社會責任與利益間取得平衡。
顯然地，類似Sappi這樣的公司收益極多。據說，Sappi的執行董事是南非收入最高的企業成員，而某些在KwaZulu Natal省北部工作的造林工人，每個月只領到南非幣二百元。
眾所皆知，Sappi在三年之內，在環境相關計畫中花了一千萬南非幣。然而在同樣的這三年裡，卻有一億五千萬元的經費是投資在發展新的網際網路系統科技上。(最近，Sappi花了三千萬英鎊，使英國一套品質良好的造紙設備升級)。平衡在哪裡？
SAWaC相信，如同Sappi這樣的大公司有朝向永續發展改變的力量、資源、組織結構與職責。他們應該讓產品範圍多樣化，並嘗試對生態友善的農場經營策略。應該持續履行長遠的農業原則，從大型單一作物的農耕方式轉換小尺度、勞力密集的方式。某些特殊區域應該少輸出生紙漿，而生產多樣的、附加價值高的產品。工業界中應該多重視紙漿的替代物，如工業用大麻，因為這些替代物只在多雨的季節中消耗水分，它們的根也不像外來樹種般深入土壤如此之深，對於環境較為友善。它們是季節性的產物，需要較密集的勞力，並適合同時栽種其他植物。
到目前還沒有作物，可以取代現存自然草原的價值。
如果我們要給其他生物與系統一個以自然運作機會，為了所有的生命能夠持續，那麼朝向最少土地利用的努力是不可避免的。
SAWaC的網頁為 http://www.sawac.co.za
版權歸屬 Southern African Water Crisis (SAWaC)，環境信託基金會 (謝洵怡 譯，李玲玲審校)
中英對照全文：http://news.ngo.org.tw/issue/sustain/sustain-00062202.htm |
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Philip OwenSAWaC
(SAWaC - Southern African Water Crisis)
"Do onto future generations as you would want to have done unto you"
"If you want to believe everything is still well in the world, you have to ignore at least ? of it".
Exploitation of natural resources, over population, burning of fossil fuels, pollution, nuclear contamination, de-forestation, and industrial agriculture (including the timber industry) have led to a drastic decline in bio-diversity.
According to a environmental report commissioned by the U.N.
- 50% of the earth's wetlands have been drained.
- 80% of the grasslands extensively altered.
- 58% of coral reefs are in jeopardy of being destroyed due to human activities
- 20% of dry lands are in danger of becoming deserts.
- Groundwater is being depleted almost everywhere.
The WWF recently released a "Living Planet Report", in which it states that since 1970, the earth has lost 30% of its biodiversity.
It is impossible for us to live without the environment. We are subject to the basic rules of life, the same as applies to all other living organisms. We are creatures of the earth. We eat, drink and breath this environment
Integrated natural eco-systems make life possible, by regulating certain crucial aspects of our environment like atmosphere, climate, ozone, etc.
There is a very limited temperature range in which human life is possible. Integrated natural systems regulate this heat through the complex nature of our atmosphere, dependant on gasses released from living systems. Human induced air pollution is now upsetting this delicate balance.
By our prolific use of fossil fuels, a large amount of carbon is being released into the atmosphere. At the same time indigenous "old growth" forests, which acts as the lungs of the earth by absorbing much of the carbon is being logged, everywhere they still exist. Thus carbon is being trapped in the atmosphere producing the greenhouse effect. Slowly, but surely, the earth is heating up.
It has been reported that the surface temperature of the Indian ocean was 28 degrees this season, leading to exceptional rainfall in southeast Africa. These floods affected the lives of millions of people.
There is a global realization that we will have to change the way things are, we will have to start working with nature, in order to benefit all the organisms with which we share our earth, we have to work with life, for life.
The timber plantation problem
In the area where I live, large-scale tree plantations impact most severely on the natural environment. In South Africa, 1.5 million ha of managed alien tree plantations have been established. According to the CSIR, another 1.65 million ha of S.A. soil is under "unmanaged" alien vegetation, mostly pine, eucalyptus and wattle. According to, "forestry facts", which appeared in the SAL in flight magazine, Sawubona, a further 13 000ha of our natural grassland is being "afforested" annually.
It is well documented that alien tree plantations use water excessively. The water run off of the Klaseri river (Northern Province, Mpumalanga, South Africa) dropped dramatically (from 143 million cubic metres to 16.5 million cubic metres) during the period 1935 - 1965, when the only significant change in the area was the establishment of alien mono culture tree plantations in the river catchments.
Alien tree plantations use water throughout the year, resulting in drastic reduction of winter low-flow, when many rivers in the lowveld dry up completely.
The water retention function performed by grasslands is lost when tree plantations are established.
We speak often of the integrated nature of our ecosystems, How then, can wetlands be isolated from the grasslands that feed them? Naturally, all efforts to reclaim, rehabilitate and protect land we deem essential to the functionality of the natural systems is of vital importance, but we should not lose sight of the integrated nature of our ecosystems.
The recent heavy rains caused heavy flooding; little or no blame was attributed to the plantation industry. Yet, by having replaced the grassland with monocultures the water retaining function performed by grassland is lost. It is no surprise then, that heavy flooding will occur, when the water rushes past in large volume soon after the big rain.
The problem is aggravated by the common practice of "burning slash". This practice normally occurs after clear felling, before the next planting. These fires bake the soil, making it even more difficult for rainwater to penetrate.
In the area where I live the change in the rivers character has been remarkable. 30 years ago I remember floods lasting several days, with the water levels gradually subsiding. The recent floods rushed by, and despite the good rain, the water level in the Houtbosloop is low. The only significant change was the establishment of plantations in the river catchments.
Monoculture timber plantations have a drastic impact on biodiversity.
The thick build up of debris under a well-established plantation is proof that even the microorganisms cannot adapt and live in plantation conditions. These micro-organisms are responsible for breaking down organic matter into usable nutrients, in order to ensure healthy soil
By exporting "raw" pulp, we are in essence exporting soil nutrients and water. The plantation model as currently implemented does not allow for the soil to regain health.
Some soil types become depleted after two 25-year rotations of pine, What will the situation be 150 years into the future, if no change occurs soon?
Indigenous plants cannot survive in alien plantation conditions; neither can insects, reptiles, birds, or mammals. Having established the plantation, we deny the right to life to all other organisms, which inhabited the once fertile grasslands. Many animals, such as the blue swallow, Rudd's lark, the golden mole, have been driven to the brink of extinction due to loss of the grassland habitat.
Negative impacts on the natural environment affect people. It is easy to find evidence of people having lived sustainably in the vast grasslands now covered in monocultures. People who understood the land, who had a real respect for the power of nature, their lives dominated, and enriched by it. People who were able to hunt the abundant eland and blouwildebeest, gather honey from wild bees, find building material, fuel wood, medicinal herbs and plants from the natural environment. They farmed mostly indigenous crops; using small scale, labor intensive methods.
The industrial age brought mechanization, urbanization, and a steady decline in values and respect for nature.
Towards Sustainability
In order to be sustainable, a company should have balanced "triple bottom lines", ecosystem health, social responsibility and profit.
It is clear that a company such as Sappi is big on profit. It is said that Sappi's executive director is the highest paid corporate member in South Africa, yet some plantation workers in Northern KwaZulu Natal receives R200 per month.
It is well publicized that Sappi spend R10 million over a three year period on environment related projects. Yet during the same three-year period, 150 million Dollars was spent implementing new internet systems technology. (Recently, Sappi spent 30 million pounds to upgrade a fine quality paper producing facility in England). Where is the balance?
SAWaC believes that large company's like Sappi has the power, resources infrastructure and duty to implement a change toward sustainability. They should diversify their product range, and experiment with eco friendly farming practices. Permanent agriculture principles should be implemented over time, a move away from large-scale monocultures toward small scale, labor-intensive methods. Less raw pulp, and more varied, value added produce should be exported from specific regions. Pulp alternatives, such as Industrial Hemp should receive more attention from industry, as these alternatives could be more friendly toward the environment as they consume water during the wet season only and their roots do not penetrate as deep as alien timber species.. It is seasonal produce, more labor intensive and well suited to intercropping.
Yet there is NO CROP, valuable enough to replace the remaining natural grasslands.
A move toward minimal land use is inevitable, if we are to give other living organisms and systems a chance to function as nature intended. In order to sustain life. All life.
Home Page:http:// www.sawac.co.za
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